| |
Back | Home | Next
Islam and Science: An Historical Perspective
GHULAM MUSTAFA In this article: Religion is a set of systems in which rituals, doctrines, sentiments, institutions and other similar elements are interconnected (1), whereas science is the study of natural world and the things that happen in it. Both, religion and science convey the truth, one through revelation and the other through observation and experiment. Thus they become main sources of human information. (2) Religion deals with every aspect of human life and regulates it in the light of revealed knowledge while, science deals with material aspect of our life. It is a fact that religion and moral values are beyond the domain of science. Science can discuss only those things which are subject to physical laws and can lend themselves to scientific observation. The relationship between religions and science has not always been same in any one place or time. In ancient cultures (Greek, Indian, Chinese and Egyptian) science made certain progress but its speed was very slow. In case of western Christianity and Judaism, the attitude towards science was antagonistic. It is admitted that scientists have had great difficulties with the authorities of these religions. For many centuries scientific development was apposed by the church. Those who sought to enlarge science had to go into exile to avoid being burnt at the stake, unless they recanted, changed their attitude and begged pardon. (3) Islam, a religion for all times, dawned in the 7th century. It contains complete code of life and thereafter, and believes in the glory of human soul and body. The attitude of Islam was, generally speaking, quite protagonistic. The Prophet encouraged scientific knowledge by saying “Seek knowledge from cradle to grave”. In another Hadith the search for knowledge is made compulsory for all. For the guidance of Muslims the Prophet said, “Don’t simply be a narrator of knowledge, examine, verify and put to test all that you are told. That will help you to find the ultimate truth”. To avoid conflict between Islam and science he provided guidance by saying, “Reflect in the creation of Allah and do not reflect in Allah”. Basic subject of the Qur'an is man. It invites man to cultivate science. It contains many observations on natural phenomena and includes explanatory details. There are 756 verses in the Qur’an about the study of universe. Thus 1/8 of the Holy Book speaks of Tafakur and Tadabur. Allah has enabled man to discover physical laws and to harness everything in the universe to his best advantage. The following verse of the Quran is a reference to this fact. It says, “See ye not how Allah hath made subservient unto you whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth, and showered on you His blessings both manifest and hidden”. (5) This declaration of the Almighty provides a great incentive for the exploitation of all resources for the welfare of mankind. Some Quranic instructions like command to travel throughout the world, to prepare the maximum possible force and war material, form the starting point of serious activities in the field of science and technology. (6) Preceding details show that relationship between Islam and Science turns out to be one of harmony and not of discord. Back to Top The early Muslims, after having consolidated their administrative system, caught the significance of creative impulse especially during the Abbasid period and began to address themselves to learning. During the early phase of their history, the Muslims came across some scientific institutions such as the institutions of Jundishapur, Alexandria and Haran. (7) The scientific works of Greeks, Romans and Persians found in these and other places caused a great curiosity in them. They did their utmost to make such scientific literature accessible to them. Manuscripts of the territories under their control were in their access while the literature not in their approach was brought from the foreign lands on caliph’s orders. Sometimes non-Muslim scholars themselves brought such books to learning centres of Islam. (8) Material thus collected was in Greek, Sanskrit, and Syrian and Pahlvi languages. In order to make it understandable to the Arabs translation was needed. Numbers of academies were founded for translation work. First such academy known as Baitul Hikma was founded at Baghdad by Al-Mamoon, the Abbasid caliph. (9) There was a rich library and an observatory in it. Such academies, observatories and libraries were also set up in other parts of the Muslim world. Capable researchers were appointed in those academies. Besides Muslims, Christians and Jews translated and edited books from various languages. Hunain ibn Ishaq. Yaqub ibn Ishaq Kindi. Thabit ibn Qurra, Al-Battani and Umar ibn Farhan Tabari were eminent translators. (10) Mostly translation work was carried out at Baghdad which enabled the later scholars to erect their building on this solid foundation. Back to Top Muslim rulers of middle Ages patronized scientific learning and research. They vied with each other in attracting the best scholars to their courts. Due to this patronage Baghdad of Abbasids, Egypt of Fatmids and Spain of Ummayids became great centres of scientific development and learning. (11) Between 8th and 13th centuries, at the time when restrictions on scientific development were in force in the West, a very large number of studies and discoveries were being made at Islamic universities. It was there that the remarkable resources of the time were to be found. (12) Scientific spirit governed all this work. The Muslims made an advancement on the works of Greeks who used deductive method and limited themselves to speculation. The Muslims based their work on experimental method. The notion that experimental method is European discovery is fallacy. Iqbal says, “The general empirical attitude of the Quran made Muslims the founder of modern science”. (13) The Muslims of Middle Ages accepted original contribution of ancient civilizations, corrected errors and preserved their own discoveries. Their contribution in astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography and medicine was remarkable. Kindi, Khawarzimi, Al-Razi, Jabir ibn Hayan, ibn Sina, Albiruni, ibn al-Haithem, Al-Zahrawi and ibn al-Nafis (14) were most prominent stars of the galaxy of medieval Islam. They were most original and profound and influenced the course of human thought in diverse ways. For the first time, science took an international character in the Islamic universities of middle Ages where scholars from all over the Europe used to come for study. At this time men were steeped in religious spirit than they are today; but in the Islamic world, this did not prevent them from being both believers and scientists. Draper, in his illustrious book “A Short History of Conflict of Science and Religion” says, “All the progress during the Middle Ages owes its debt to the Muslims, since the Christian world at that time was plunged into ignorance and superstitions and it knew nothing of scholarly pursuits”. (15) Back to Top The European scholars, after quenching their thirst of knowledge, moved into the phase in which translation of Arabic works started in Latin and other European languages. All Muslim major works were translated by the end of thirteen century. Besides Constantine and Gerard of Cremona some other eminent translators from the West were Roger Sacon, Adelard of Bath, Petrus Alfonsi and Arnold of Villanova. (16) The contact of Europe with superior Islamic civilization brought changes in the West. Thirteenth century saw founding of universities and great age of scholastic learning. (17) European renaissance was essentially the contribution of the Muslims. Their works were taught as text-books in European universities. The European depended on Muslim science till they became strong intellectually. Robert Briffault, an orientalist, writes, “In the absence of the Arabs, it would have been impossible for the modern Europe to have been born.” (18) Back to Top From 13th century onward, the brilliant culture which shone so brightly in contrast to the darkness of Christian West began to fade. The nations once sunk in barbarism started their scientific adventure while the Muslims turned their back to it. How did this come about appears to be a mystery. Researchers have propounded different theories to give the answer to this question. Some of them consider that political downfall brought scientific activities to close. Other blame that religious orthodoxy became hurdle in the way of scientific progress. Still other think that economic system and non-productively of science compelled Muslims to give up scientific research. In the following paragraphs an effort has been made to find out whether a single factor was responsible for backwardness of Muslims in the field of science and technology or all these factors somehow or the other stopped scientific activities. 1. The Muslims remained supreme for a long time but in 13th century they lost their force and vitality. This invited others to attack their territories. Tartars' invasion in the East and Muslims expulsion from Spain deprived them of their past position. This settled deathlike gloom in both centres of learning. In former case the humans were killed indiscriminately and books in libraries were consumed to ashes. The accumulated treasures of five centuries were lost for ever to humanity. (19) The Christians destroyed the intellectually life of the people in Spain. Along with killing, expelling or converting the Muslims to Christianity, the centres of learning were also destroyed. Hitti writes that even Spanish baths were considered a relic of infidelity and were demolished. (20) Thus golden period of Spain came to an end. African lands became victim of political turmoil. In Western Africa the tide of progress was turned back due to the up rise of Berber fanaticism. The centres of learning were converted into the centres of ignorance. There was anarchy in Egypt which discouraged the cultivation of peaceful knowledge. Now no rulers were left to patronize learning. 2. Political decline paved the way for a drastic change in economic system formerly based on trade and urban civilization. Under this system Muslim science flourished. From 12th century onwards volume of international trade concentrated and urban wealth declined. (21) These changes gave birth to feudal system which turned the tide back. 3. It would be wrong to imagine that, in the history of Islam certain believers had never harboured a negative attitude towards science. This is a fact that at certain periods, the obligation to educate oneself and others was rather neglected. It is equally true that in the Muslim world an attempt was sometimes made to stop scientific development. Justice Amir Ali observes that Abu al Abbas Ashari and Ghazali denunciated science and philosophy by their exhortation that besides law and theology no other knowledge was worth acquiring. This did more to stop the progress of the Muslim world than most other Muslim scholastics. (22) Degenerated type of mysticism also proved injurious to scientific progress in Islam. The distinction of Zahir (apparent) and Batin (real) created an attitude of indifference to all that applies to appearance. The spirit of total other-worldliness obscured men’s vision of a very important aspect of Islam as a social polity. (23) Back to Top Under Ottoman caliphs Muslims regained political strength. During this period, there was a shift in Muslim outlook. Scientific learning was discouraged and Islamic dogma was linked with mysticism. At that time the West had made great advancement in science and technology. Muslims had closed their doors against borrowing from the West. When the West started on its career of progress, the Muslim East failed to realise importance of scientific and technological development. The old curiosity, the mother of all intellectual progress, was gone. Allama Iqbal is of the view that the ignorance of Muslims was so great that they considered thoroughly anti-Islamic what had in the main arisen out of the bosom of their own culture. It is surprising to note that not a single scientist of any repute existed in entire Muslim world from 15th century. On the other hand what one find in this period is a condemnation of modern scientific knowledge because of its supposedly anti-religious tendencies? (24) Science had become productive in the later period. Technology was its outcome. The west took full advantage of the opportunity but Muslims questioned the compatibility of modern knowledge with their mistaken view of religion. As a result western nations captured Muslim lands and brought the latter under their domination. It was after the World War II when they were given independence. Still the situation has not improved much. This attitude is due to their effort to protect religion against western influence where anyone who talks of God in scientific circles really does stand out. The cursory glance over the article shows that Islam has no conflict with science. It invites man to cultivate science. The contribution of Muslims in the field of science has been remarkable. After 13th century they paid more attention to religious teachings to preserve it from negative influences. Scientific and technological revolution in the west, unfortunately was misunderstood by the Muslims at that time and lagged behind. Now pragmatic approach is required to keep up pace with the time and regain their lost position. Back to Top REFERENCES - Encyclopedia Britanica Vol. 15, p.613
- A.R. Nowshervi, Muslims; the pioneers of Modern Science, Peshawar, 1993, p. 45
- Maurice Bucaille, The Bible, The Quran and Science, Delhi, 1982, p. 115.
- Nowshervi, op.cit, p.54
- Al-Quran, 31:20.
- Mohammad Saud, Islam and Evolution of Science, Islamabad, 1994, p.3.
- Ibid, p.9
- Ibid, pp. 9-10
- Ibid, p.11.
- Maulana Abdul Salam Nadvi, Hukama-e-Islam, Islamabad, 1989, p.92.
- Bucaille, op.cit, p.116.
- Nowshervi, op.cit, p.55.
- Ibid, pp. 58-75.
- Colin A. Ronan, The Cambridge Illustrated History of World Science, U.K., 1983, pp. 207-18.
- Nowshervi, op.cit, p.158
- Ibid, pp, 81-82
- Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 25, pp.367-68.
- Nowshervi, op.cit, p.160.
- Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London, 1986, pp. 382-87.
- Ibid, pp.556-56
- Ziauddin Ahmad, Influence of Islam on Western Civilization, Karachi, 1978, p.192.
- Ibid, p.187. also Pervez Amirali Hodhboy, Muslims and Science Religious Orthodoxy and Struggle for Rationality, Islamabad, pp. 115-20.
- Ibid, p.188
- Abdur Rehman Khan, Islam aur Science, Multan, 1981, pp.56-57.
Lecturer, Pakistan Studies, Govt. Post Graduate College, Mansehra, NWFP, Pakistan. Back to Table of Contents
| | |