|
|
Back |
Home
| Next
Islam and Science: An Historical Perspective
GHULAM MUSTAFA
In
this article:
Religion is a set of
systems in which rituals, doctrines, sentiments, institutions and other
similar elements are interconnected (1), whereas science is the study of
natural world and the things that happen in it. Both, religion and
science convey the truth, one through revelation and the other through
observation and experiment. Thus they become main sources of human
information. (2) Religion deals with every aspect of human life and
regulates it in the light of revealed knowledge while, science deals
with material aspect of our life. It is a fact that religion and moral
values are beyond the domain of science. Science can discuss only those
things which are subject to physical laws and can lend themselves to
scientific observation.
The relationship between
religions and science has not always been same in any one place or time.
In ancient cultures (Greek, Indian, Chinese and Egyptian) science made
certain progress but its speed was very slow. In case of western
Christianity and Judaism, the attitude towards science was antagonistic.
It is admitted that scientists have had great difficulties with the
authorities of these religions. For many centuries scientific
development was apposed by the church. Those who sought to enlarge
science had to go into exile to avoid being burnt at the stake, unless
they recanted, changed their attitude and begged pardon. (3)
Islam, a religion for all
times, dawned in the 7th century. It contains complete code
of life and thereafter, and believes in the glory of human soul and
body. The attitude of Islam was, generally speaking, quite protagonistic.
The Prophet encouraged scientific knowledge by saying “Seek knowledge
from cradle to grave”. In another
Hadith the search
for knowledge is made compulsory for all. For the guidance of Muslims
the Prophet said, “Don’t simply be a narrator of knowledge, examine,
verify and put to test all that you are told. That will help you to find
the ultimate truth”. To avoid conflict between Islam and science he
provided guidance by saying, “Reflect in the creation of Allah and do
not reflect in Allah”.
Basic subject of the
Qur'an is man. It invites man to cultivate science. It contains many
observations on natural phenomena and includes explanatory details.
There are 756 verses in the Qur’an about the study of universe. Thus 1/8
of the Holy Book speaks of
Tafakur
and
Tadabur. Allah has
enabled man to discover physical laws and to harness everything in the
universe to his best advantage. The following verse of the Quran is a
reference to this fact. It says, “See ye not how Allah hath made
subservient unto you whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in
the earth, and showered on you His blessings both manifest and hidden”.
(5) This declaration of the Almighty provides a great incentive for the
exploitation of all resources for the welfare of mankind. Some Quranic
instructions like command to travel throughout the world, to prepare the
maximum possible force and war material, form the starting point of
serious activities in the field of science and technology. (6) Preceding
details show that relationship between Islam and Science turns out to be
one of harmony and not of discord.
Back to Top
The early Muslims, after
having consolidated their administrative system, caught the significance
of creative impulse especially during the Abbasid period and began to
address themselves to learning. During the early phase of their history,
the Muslims came across some scientific institutions such as the
institutions of Jundishapur, Alexandria and Haran. (7) The scientific
works of Greeks, Romans and Persians found in these and other places
caused a great curiosity in them. They did their utmost to make such
scientific literature accessible to them. Manuscripts of the territories
under their control were in their access while the literature not in
their approach was brought from the foreign lands on caliph’s orders.
Sometimes non-Muslim scholars themselves brought such books to learning
centres of Islam. (8)
Material thus collected
was in Greek, Sanskrit, and Syrian and Pahlvi languages. In order to
make it understandable to the Arabs translation was needed. Numbers of
academies were founded for translation work. First such academy known as
Baitul Hikma was founded at Baghdad by Al-Mamoon, the Abbasid caliph.
(9) There was a rich library and an observatory in it. Such academies,
observatories and libraries were also set up in other parts of the
Muslim world. Capable researchers were appointed in those academies.
Besides Muslims, Christians and Jews translated and edited books from
various languages. Hunain ibn Ishaq. Yaqub ibn Ishaq Kindi. Thabit ibn
Qurra, Al-Battani and Umar ibn Farhan Tabari were eminent translators.
(10) Mostly translation work was carried out at Baghdad which enabled
the later scholars to erect their building on this solid foundation.
Back to Top
Muslim rulers of middle
Ages patronized scientific learning and research. They vied with each
other in attracting the best scholars to their courts. Due to this
patronage Baghdad of Abbasids, Egypt of Fatmids and Spain of Ummayids
became great centres of scientific development and learning. (11)
Between 8th and 13th
centuries, at the time when restrictions on scientific development were
in force in the West, a very large number of studies and discoveries
were being made at Islamic universities. It was there that the
remarkable resources of the time were to be found. (12) Scientific
spirit governed all this work.
The Muslims made an
advancement on the works of Greeks who used deductive method and limited
themselves to speculation. The Muslims based their work on experimental
method. The notion that experimental method is European discovery is
fallacy. Iqbal says, “The general empirical attitude of the Quran made
Muslims the founder of modern science”. (13)
The Muslims of Middle Ages
accepted original contribution of ancient civilizations, corrected
errors and preserved their own discoveries. Their contribution in
astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography and
medicine was remarkable. Kindi, Khawarzimi, Al-Razi, Jabir ibn Hayan,
ibn Sina, Albiruni, ibn al-Haithem, Al-Zahrawi and ibn al-Nafis (14)
were most prominent stars of the galaxy of medieval Islam. They were
most original and profound and influenced the course of human thought in
diverse ways.
For the first time,
science took an international character in the Islamic universities of
middle Ages where scholars from all over the Europe used to come for
study. At this time men were steeped in religious spirit than they are
today; but in the Islamic world, this did not prevent them from being
both believers and scientists. Draper, in his illustrious book “A Short
History of Conflict of Science and Religion” says, “All the progress
during the Middle Ages owes its debt to the Muslims, since the Christian
world at that time was plunged into ignorance and superstitions and it
knew nothing of scholarly pursuits”. (15)
Back to Top
The European scholars,
after quenching their thirst of knowledge, moved into the phase in which
translation of Arabic works started in Latin and other European
languages. All Muslim major works were translated by the end of thirteen
century. Besides Constantine and Gerard of Cremona some other eminent
translators from the West were Roger Sacon, Adelard of Bath, Petrus
Alfonsi and Arnold of Villanova. (16)
The contact of Europe with
superior Islamic civilization brought changes in the West. Thirteenth
century saw founding of universities and great age of scholastic
learning. (17) European renaissance was essentially the contribution of
the Muslims. Their works were taught as text-books in European
universities. The European depended on Muslim science till they became
strong intellectually. Robert Briffault, an orientalist, writes, “In the
absence of the Arabs, it would have been impossible for the modern
Europe to have been born.” (18)
Back to Top
From 13th
century onward, the brilliant culture which shone so brightly in
contrast to the darkness of Christian West began to fade. The nations
once sunk in barbarism started their scientific adventure while the
Muslims turned their back to it. How did this come about appears to be a
mystery. Researchers have propounded different theories to give the
answer to this question. Some of them consider that political downfall
brought scientific activities to close. Other blame that religious
orthodoxy became hurdle in the way of scientific progress. Still other
think that economic system and non-productively of science compelled
Muslims to give up scientific research. In the following paragraphs an
effort has been made to find out whether a single factor was responsible
for backwardness of Muslims in the field of science and technology or
all these factors somehow or the other stopped scientific activities.
1.
The Muslims remained supreme for a long time but
in 13th century they lost their force and vitality. This
invited others to attack their territories. Tartars' invasion in the
East and Muslims expulsion from Spain deprived them of their past
position. This settled deathlike gloom in both centres of learning. In
former case the humans were killed indiscriminately and books in
libraries were consumed to ashes. The accumulated treasures of five
centuries were lost for ever to humanity. (19)
The
Christians destroyed the intellectually life of the people in Spain.
Along with killing, expelling or converting the Muslims to Christianity,
the centres of learning were also destroyed. Hitti writes that even
Spanish baths were considered a relic of infidelity and were demolished.
(20) Thus golden period of Spain came to an end.
African
lands became victim of political turmoil. In Western Africa the tide of
progress was turned back due to the up rise of Berber fanaticism. The
centres of learning were converted into the centres of ignorance. There
was anarchy in Egypt which discouraged the cultivation of peaceful
knowledge. Now no rulers were left to patronize learning.
2.
Political decline paved the way for a drastic
change in economic system formerly based on trade and urban
civilization. Under this system Muslim science flourished. From 12th
century onwards volume of international trade concentrated and urban
wealth declined. (21) These changes gave birth to feudal system which
turned the tide back.
3.
It would be wrong to imagine that, in the history
of Islam certain believers had never harboured a negative attitude
towards science. This is a fact that at certain periods, the obligation
to educate oneself and others was rather neglected. It is equally true
that in the Muslim world an attempt was sometimes made to stop
scientific development. Justice Amir Ali observes that Abu al Abbas
Ashari and Ghazali denunciated science and philosophy by their
exhortation that besides law and theology no other knowledge was worth
acquiring. This did more to stop the progress of the Muslim world than
most other Muslim scholastics. (22)
Degenerated type of mysticism also
proved injurious to scientific progress in Islam. The distinction of
Zahir (apparent) and Batin (real) created an attitude of indifference to
all that applies to appearance. The spirit of total other-worldliness
obscured men’s vision of a very important aspect of Islam as a social
polity. (23)
Back to Top
Under Ottoman caliphs
Muslims regained political strength. During this period, there was a
shift in Muslim outlook. Scientific learning was discouraged and Islamic
dogma was linked with mysticism. At that time the West had made great
advancement in science and technology. Muslims had closed their doors
against borrowing from the West. When the West started on its career of
progress, the Muslim East failed to realise importance of scientific and
technological development. The old curiosity, the mother of all
intellectual progress, was gone. Allama Iqbal is of the view that the
ignorance of Muslims was so great that they considered thoroughly
anti-Islamic what had in the main arisen out of the bosom of their own
culture. It is surprising to note that not a single scientist of any
repute existed in entire Muslim world from 15th century. On
the other hand what one find in this period is a condemnation of modern
scientific knowledge because of its supposedly anti-religious
tendencies? (24)
Science had become
productive in the later period. Technology was its outcome. The west
took full advantage of the opportunity but Muslims questioned the
compatibility of modern knowledge with their mistaken view of religion.
As a result western nations captured Muslim lands and brought the latter
under their domination. It was after the World War II when they were
given independence. Still the situation has not improved much. This
attitude is due to their effort to protect religion against western
influence where anyone who talks of God in scientific circles really
does stand out.
The cursory glance over
the article shows that Islam has no conflict with science. It invites
man to cultivate science. The contribution of Muslims in the field of
science has been remarkable. After 13th century they paid
more attention to religious teachings to preserve it from negative
influences. Scientific and technological revolution in the west,
unfortunately was misunderstood by the Muslims at that time and lagged
behind. Now pragmatic approach is required to keep up pace with the time
and regain their lost position.
Back to Top
REFERENCES
-
Encyclopedia Britanica
Vol. 15, p.613
-
A.R. Nowshervi, Muslims; the
pioneers of Modern Science,
Peshawar, 1993, p. 45
-
Maurice Bucaille, The Bible,
The Quran and Science,
Delhi, 1982, p. 115.
-
Nowshervi, op.cit, p.54
-
Al-Quran,
31:20.
-
Mohammad Saud, Islam and
Evolution of Science,
Islamabad, 1994, p.3.
-
Ibid, p.9
-
Ibid, pp. 9-10
-
Ibid, p.11.
-
Maulana Abdul Salam Nadvi,
Hukama-e-Islam,
Islamabad, 1989, p.92.
-
Bucaille, op.cit, p.116.
-
Nowshervi, op.cit, p.55.
-
Ibid, pp. 58-75.
-
Colin A. Ronan, The
Cambridge Illustrated History of World
Science,
U.K., 1983, pp. 207-18.
-
Nowshervi, op.cit, p.158
-
Ibid, pp, 81-82
-
Encyclopedia
Americana,
vol. 25, pp.367-68.
-
Nowshervi, op.cit, p.160.
-
Philip K. Hitti, History of
the Arabs,
London, 1986, pp. 382-87.
-
Ibid, pp.556-56
-
Ziauddin Ahmad, Influence of
Islam on Western Civilization,
Karachi, 1978, p.192.
-
Ibid, p.187. also Pervez
Amirali Hodhboy, Muslims and Science Religious Orthodoxy and
Struggle for Rationality,
Islamabad, pp. 115-20.
-
Ibid, p.188
-
Abdur Rehman Khan, Islam aur
Science,
Multan, 1981, pp.56-57.
Lecturer, Pakistan Studies, Govt. Post Graduate
College, Mansehra, NWFP, Pakistan.
Back to Table of Contents
|
|
|