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Eschatology and Life After Death - Theological and
Scientific Perspective
MUHAMMAD NASEEM KHAN
There are many questions pertaining to
man and universe which have been agitating human mind since his advent
in the world. Some of these questions are:
1.
What is the beginning of the universe?
2.
What is the purpose of man’s creation?
3.
What is the ultimate end of man and universe?(1)
In the present discussion we shall
discern the issue of ultimate end of man and universe both in religious
and scientific perspective.
In the outset it seems pertinent to
explain the concept of eschatology. According to the Oxford Universal
Dictionary ‘Eschatology’ is derived from two words
‘eschatos’ (Last or Final) and
‘logos’ (Discourse or Discussion). It is
the science of the four last things: death, judgement, heaven and hell.
‘New
Webster Dictionary’
says Eschatology refers to the doctrine of the last or final things, as
death, judgement and the destination of soul. Eschatology, according to
the Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, can have two meanings. First, it can
mean the end of each individual human life. Second, it can mean the end
of the world. In the first, the individualistic, sense ‘eschatology’ is
an account of the destiny that awaits each person after death. Ain the
cosmic or social, sense it is a description of a goal (tales) in which
history will be fulfilled. This goal may be of either a this worldly or
an other worldly kind. (2) The eschatological data found in the Holy
Quran and the ‘Hadith’ collections not only mention the ultimate fate of
human race but also the destiny of the present universe.
The ‘Last Day’ is one of the basic
articles of Islamic Faith. The Holy Quran discusses what occurs after
death in a detail unparalleled by other scriptures, and
‘adith’ literature on the subject is
voluminous. Hence scholastic theologians, philosophers, Sufis, Quran
commentators etc., all made eschatology one of their principal
concerns.(3) Now 7Muslim scholars like Bashiruddin Mahmood, K.A Rashid,
Maulana Wahiddudin Khan and Shahabuddin Nadvi have endeavoured to
explain eschatological facts, contained in the Holy Quran and the
Hadith literature,
in scientific perspective. Some books written by Western scholars – such
as Stephen Hawking’s A brief History of Time, and George Gamow’s The
Birth and Death of the Sun – are seemingly by acknowledging the
eschatological facts contained in the Holy Quran and the Hadith
literature.
This universe is in a state of flux.
There is going on the process of creation and recreation. A part of the
universe meets its end and a new one comes into existence. There cannot
be stalemate or impasse in the universe. The Holy Quran says:
Allah originates creation
Then He reverts it
Then in the end
Unto Him ye will be returned.
(30:11)
Each day Almighty Allah manifest Himself
in a new splendour. The Holy Quran says:
Whosoever is in the heavens and earth,
ask Him (for favours)
(And) Each Day He manifest Himself,
in a new splendour. (55:29)
Everything in the universe has a purpose
and design. After this purpose or design of existence is fulfilled, it
will be replaced by another one suited to new demands. The Holy Quran
says:
“We have not created the heavens and the earth,
and all that lies between them but with a purpose,
According to a pre-fixed
measurement.” (46:3)
And;
“Every order (event) has an appointed time,
And ye will come to know of it soon.” (6:67)
There was a pre-universe. Then the
present universe was created by Almighty Allah. On a particular day this
universe will come to its end and new universe will be brought into
existence. The eschatological details contain in the Quran and the
‘Hadith’ literature reveals that this universe is fast approaching its
ultimate fate. The Holy Quran says:
“Closer and Closer to mankind
Comes their reckoning,
Yet they heed not
And they turn away” (21:1)
Before the Great Happening many events
are taking place. These events are sometime minor and at other occasions
they are revolutionary. Minor Doomsdays will precede The Universal
Doomsday. Minor Doomsdays have to do with the collapse of the earth and
the solar system and the universal Doomsday with the whole universe.
Death of an individual is also not less than Doomsday for him. The
universal Doomsday can be understood having in view the changes taking
place in the universe at the present. These events are reminiscent of
the Day on which the universe will collapse.
Minor Doomsdays, S.Bashir-ud-Din Mahmood
says, are of a routine nature, part of the continuous Divine process of
creation and recreation. In their scope, they are generally limited to a
particular earth, or even they may be localized affairs affecting a
small region of the Earth.
The catastrophies on national or global
scale happened in the past and are likely to happen in the future. In
the past these were events like Flood of Nuh, falls of meteors, earth
quakes etc. which wiped out entire civilization or led to the extinction
of some species (like dinosaur) from the face of the earth. The Holy
Quran has referred to many such catastrophic events. (4) The Holy Quran
says:
“So they were rightly seized by a mighty blast,
And We turned them in to mouldy rubbish,
A good riddance of the wicked people
Then after them we raised an other
generation.” (23: 41-42)
And;
“And We sent Noah to his people and he lived them a
thousand years minus fifty.
Then they were caught by the deluge
for they were evil” (29:14)
Yet again:
…. Against some We sent of violent hurricane.
And of them was he who was overtaken by the awful cry.
And some We submerged under earth
And some We drowned (29: 40)
The people of Shohaib were destroyed by
an earth quake. The Holy Quran narrates their account in the following
way:
He Said: O people, worship Allah
And be ready for the Day of Resurrection;
Don’t do evil and create not mischief in the land;
But they denied him and ultimately
Were seized by an Earth Quake.
(29:36-37)
The universal Doomsday will commence
with the destruction of the Earth, followed by the collapse of our solar
system and then the universe will meet its end and a new universe will
be brought into existence.
The Earth’s Doomsday is a scene of
general destruction. It will fall on all the living creatures, oceans,
mountains, rivers, etc. It will be a sudden event and no one would be
able to dispose of his affairs. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said, “It will
be such a sudden event that a man will not have time to place in his
mouth, what is in his hand.” (5)
A number of verses of the Holy Quran and
sayings of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) clearly mention many events and
happenings which will either by the causes of earth’s collapse or they
will be the outcome of the disastrous event. Thus we find clues to the
mechanics of the Earth’s Doomsday.
In a ‘Hadith’ of the Prophet (PBUH) it
is told that during this period the Earth will experience excessive
meteorite showers falling like stones on it. (6) In another ‘Hadith’ it
is said that near the Doomsday there will occur earth quakes, due to
which large tract of the earth will sink, first in the East, then in the
West and one in Arabia. (7) At another occasion the Prophet of Allah
said, “Before the Last hour, time will move so fast that a year will
appear as a month; and a month as a week, and a week as a day; and a day
as an hour and an hour as a burst of fire” (8) In an another ‘Hadith’
the Holy Prophet said, “Finally will then become overcast with smoke.
The whole Earth will experience catastrophic red wind storms, which may
continue for years, killing every living creature from the face of the
Earth.” (9)
The Holy Quran says:
And When the ‘Soor’ shall sound,
One blast,
Earth and the mountains,
Will be lifted up,
and crushed with one crash.
Then on that Day,
The Event will fall” (69:13-15)
And;
See they not,
How we are,
Reducing the Earth gradually,
From its all sides (13:41)
Having all the verses and ‘Ahadith’
in view the likely causes of earth’s destruction can be summarized as
under:
-
There can be a great crash of some
external heavenly body which would then cause a series of events
referred to in the Holy Quran.
-
The contraction of the Earth may
mount pressure on the interior of the earth and can result into an
explosion.
-
Earth may be pushed out of its orbit
which would ultimately cause the destruction of the whole solar
system.
After the crash of some asteroid or
meteor from the outer space the orbit of the Earth around the sun will
shrink, its orbital velocity will increase inversely proportional to its
distance from the centre of the sun. This will result in increased
velocity of the Earth around its own axis. The Enhancement of the
rotational velocity will result into the enhancement of centrifugal
forces acting on the body of the Earth. Consequently, matter on the
earth such as mountains would separate and thrown into space. Also the
increase in rotation of the Earth can subject internal molten lava in
its core to extreme cyclical pressures which might ultimately result
into bursting open of the interior of the Earth. Moreover, with the
increasing velocities the time period of the year and the day would
decrease gradually. The release of internal heat, volcanic activity,
higher rotational velocity, higher temperature on the Earth, under their
combined effect can result into another disastrous event referred to in
the Holy Quran as the ‘ Boiling of Oceans’. The Holy Quran says:
(Consider the events)
“When the oceans boil over” (82:3)
The bursting of the interior of the
Earth may cause another phenomenon referred to in the Quran oceans being
on fire: The Quran says: Consider when the oceans would burst on fire.
(81:6)
Due to volcanic activity the release of
hot lava under the beds of oceans or the release of hydrocarbon from the
interior of the earth may produce the effect of oceans being on fire.
(10)
In the above lines we have referred to a
verse of the Quran according to which the earth is contracting from all
its sides. The process of the Earth contraction is continuing ever since
its inception and may ultimately become the cause of Earth’s Doomsday.
The review of the latest scientific
theories on the evolution of the Earth reveals that the Earth was at
least 100 times larger than in volume that it is now and has shrunk to
its present size during the last five billion years of its existence.
The contraction of the earth can result
into its destruction. The contraction increases pressure on the internal
molten mass and a stage will arrive when further increase of the
pressure will bounce back in the form of violent explosion of its core.
This will then automatically initiate happening of other events linked
with the Doomsday such as violent earthquakes, filling of smoke in the
atmosphere, boiling of the oceans, disintegration of the mountains, and
so on pointed out by the Holy Quran. (11)
According to the Holy Quran (Chapter 19,
verses 13-15) a great crash (may be fall of a giant asteroid or
meteorite) will start the Doomsday of the Earth. This crash of some
heavenly body may push the Earth out of its present orbit around the sun
and if brings closer to the sun, then, the mutual gravitational pull
will continue increasing with the decreasing distance between them,
which will ultimately result in the fall of the Earth in the sun.
If some supernovas explode at a distance
of 10 light years away from the Earth, it could seriously affect its
stability and life there. (12) The destruction of a neighbouring star
can send powerful ripples in the solar system that will upset all its
family members a great deal. This may cause the death of the whole of
the planetary system.
The Holy Quran has also mentioned some
events which indicate the destruction of the whole solar system. One
event referred to in the Holy Quran is the catching of moon by the sun.
In this regard the revelation (75: 8-9) is highly thought provoking
which says:
“When the moon is buried in darkness and
the sun and moon are joined together”.
In this regard Sultan Bashiruddin
Mahmood writes:
“There could be several reasons for the
moon becoming dark. The simplest explanation could be overcastting of
moon by solar dust which would prevent the sun rays reaching the moon
thus burying it into darkness. However it is also possible that verse
may relate to some total moon eclipse, after which it will be separated
from the Earth and fall into the sun. Another plausible reason could be
that the Earth will come too close to the sun. A stage would then be
reached when due to its higher field of gravity the sun will snatch the
earth’s moon” (13)
Another event mentioned in the Quran is
that the sun will be thrown out of its normal path, creating overall
chaos in our galaxy: The Holy Quran says:
The (Day) When the sun is overthrown.
And when the star fall loosing white light and when the mountains fly
out their positions (81:1-3)
Sultan Bashirruddin Mahmood explains
this catastrophe of great magnitude involving not only sun but many
stars in the following words:
“If we try to explain the mechanism of
this happening in the light of current thinking in physics, we could say
that it may due to the explosion of some nearby supernova. One type of
such an explosion occurs when a massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel
and collapses under its own weight. A shock wave bounces back with
tremendous explosion that blows apart the stars outer most layers. When
a supernova explodes, star’s atmosphere may rush outwards at a speed as
much as 100 million miles per hour. The energy released in one such
explosion can be greater than several billion suns. This can affect the
nearby stars, at least by filling the space around with dust, making
them invisible for a distant observer. Star losing their light (referred
to in the above quoted verse) may be due to this cause. There is also
the possibility that one supernova may detonate another supernova,
resulting in a chain reaction of heavenly explosions. (14)
The Quranic account of the Doomsday
tells us that after destruction or collapse of this universe a new
universe will be created by Almighty Allah. We can quote numerous verses
in this regard. The Holy Quran says:
“There will a Day, when we shall rollup the heavens, like
a recorder rolls up a written scroll:
As We began the first creation,
Surely We shall repeat it,
It is a promise upon us,
Lo! We are to perform it” (21: 104)
The new universe will not be a replica
of the present one, but a grand system of new heavenly bodies. The earth
will not be the same and the heaven of the new universe will not be the
heaven of this universe. The Holy Quran reads:
(on that day)
The Earth will be changed to a different Earth and so
will be the heavens. (14:48)
Again,
And cry not any other god
Along with Allah.
There are not God save him
Everything will perish
Except his countenance
His is the Command, and
unto him ye will be brought back.
(28:88)
And,
(Ultimately)
All that is there will perish,
Except the Face of your Lord,
Full of Majesty, Bounty and Honour.
(55: 26-27)
There are different concepts of the
creation of universe. Greeks thought that universe had always existed.
This idea has recurred in the modern theory of steady-state universe,
postulated by Fred Hoyle. But this has been super ceded by the more
widely accepted theory known as Big Bang – The Big Bang theory says that
this universe started with a big explosion and it may last forever. A
modification to Big Bang is that universe keeps on repeating and this
theory is known as pulsating universe theory. The latest theory is known
as “Big Bounce”. According to this theory this universe started with a
“Big Bang” it will fold itself back to its origin and from there on
would start in an exponential manner. This theory was propounded in a
conference of cosmologists and particle physicists held in November
1983. This theory seems akin to views expressed in the Holy Quran. (15)
Almost all the societies and religion
do have some concept of the life after death. Death is the gateway
between the probationary life on the Earth and the spiritual world. The
phenomenon of death takes man to a new world which is as real as this
earthly life. It is not equivalent to nothingness but an act of creation
like the present life.
It is, according to the Holy Quran, a
new state in which human will be tried for this deeds or misdeeds:
He Who created death and life
That He may try
Which of you is best in deeds (67:2)
And,
They will say, Our Lord,
Twice thou gave us death,
and twice you gave us life,
Now we have recognized our sins
Is there any way out? (40-11)
And,
How can ye reject the faith in Allah
Seeing that ye were dead,
He gave you life,
Then He will cause you to die
And will again bring you to life
And again to Him will ye return (2:28)
We came from Allah and go back to
Allah:
The Quran says:
He is the Omnipotent over His slaves,
He sends guardian over you until,
When death comes unto one of you,
And they neglect not
Then they are restored unto Allah,
Their Lord, the Just. (6: 61-62)
And,
Say, the angel of death,
Put in charge of you will (duly)
Takes your souls,
Then shall ye brought back to your
Lord. (32-11)
The stay in the grave after death will
be till the Day of Resurrection.
There were numerous objections raised by
infidels and these have been answered by Allah in the Quran: The Quran
says:
Shall we be brought back when we are dead and have become
dust? That is a return remote? Surely We know that which the earth
consumeth of them, and with Us is a Book preserved. (50: 3-4)
“Deemest man that We shall not assemble his bones? Yea!
We are able to put together evenly his finger tips”. (75: 3-4)
“And they were wont to say: When we have died and become
dust and bones, shall we, then, verily be raised?
We and our fathers of old?
Say thou: verily the ancients and
those of later generations.” (56: 47-49)
“And they say: When we shall have become bones and
fragments, shall we in sooth be raised as a new creation?
Say thou: become ye stones or iron.
or anything created of the things more remote in your
breasts. They will say: who will restore us?
Say thou: He Who created you the first time…” (17: 49-51)
And man saith: When I am dead, shall I be presently
brought forth alive?
Remember not man that we created him afore when he was
not aught? (19: 66-67)
Observe they not what wise Allah
originateth creation? And then He shall restore it.
Verily for Allah that is easy.
Say thou: go about in the land and behold what wise He
hath originated creation; and then Allah shall produce another
production; verily Allah is over every thing potent. (29: 19-20)
The above mentioned verses of the Holy
Quran contain the objections raised by infidels of Arabia about the
Resurrection and life after death and the answers given by Almighty
Allah. This sort of objections and doubts are also being raised by
different people in the present era of doubt & suspicion.
The Last Day is one of the basic tenants
of Islam. We can explore the rational basis of this Great Happening to
satisfy those mind which are engulfed by suspicion and doubt. Recent
developments in the field of science can go a long way to have an idea
of the life after death.
With the discovery of cloning technology
the resurrection of human can better be understood. ‘Clone’ means a
group of individuals having similar physical and genetic make up. A
clone is created from the non-reproductive tissues of an adult animal
without involving usual sexual process. This method is in vogue for
thousands of years in the field of horticulture when trees are grown by
just planting twigs from the parent without the involvement of sexual
process.
If it is possible for humans to produce
identical or replica of a person from any cell of the body then it is
far more easier for the creator who has created man without any prior
form.
The Holy Quran says:
Observe they not what wise Allah Originateth Creation?
And then He shall restore it. Verily for Allah that is easy.
And,
Is not He who created the heavens and Earth able to
create the like of these? Yea! He is the Supreme Creator the Knower His
affair, when He intendeth is only that He says unto it: Be and it
becometh. (36: 82-83)
[In this verse the word ‘misl’ is used
which can be translated a clone (i.e. identical)]
In this connection Maulana Shahabuddin
Nadvi writes:
“The Holy Prophet’s (PBUH) sayings in
this regard can further explain the process of Resurrection. He says
when a person dies all his/her parts are lost in the soil except
coccyx (end of the vertebral column) from
which recreation will result. In another saying the Prophet (PBUH) told
that
coccyx is just like the grain of mustard
seed. Any cell of
coccyx may be used
for new birth of man in the Hereafter. (16)
K.A. Rashid gives another explanation
of the Resurrection in “Iqbal, Quran and the Western World”, “It has now
been proved that the individual cells of a living being have a Blue
Print of the entire human and the Genes which are the smallest part of a
chromosome are capable of rejuvenating by assimilation. The Genetic code
has to be translated into the ‘Albumin Language’ (Protein Language)
first. This code is a physiological script recently discovered in the
chromosomes which lays bare a programme of life and death. The programme
indicates the human capacity for renewal. This programme includes the
materialisation of consciousness.” (17)
He further writes:
“[The development in the field of
biophysics] (18) has discovered that all the living forms of life are
radiating with energy. They are vibrating in different wave lengths
which depict their function. The entire human body is surrounded by an
aura (-atmosphere surrounding a person or object and thought to come
from him) which has also now been photographed. This aura changes in
colour and in intensity according to its emotional and physical state.”
(19)
In another chapter of the same book K.A.
Rashid writes:
“The hallow or aura round man can be
traced and recorded by scanning. The vibrations are pure energy
inter-convertible into matter. All vibrations can reassemble and
reconstitute into the original body, just as we catch radio-waves and
project the pictures on our television set. It is in similar manner that
the ashes and bones of man will reassemble from the radiations and
vibration of dead matter to witness the Day of Judgement.”(20)
There is a divine system of recording
our deeds and misdeed which will be shown to us on the Day of Requital
or the Day of Judgment. Every thing around us and our body itself will
bear testimony to our actions we did here during our life. In this
respect the Holy Quran points out that our voices, movements and actions
are printed or recorded in the surrounding environment. I quote some
verses: In Sura 99, the Holy Quran says:
When earth is shaken to her utmost
convulsions,
And the Earth yields up her burdens,
And man says,
What is the matter with her;
On that day
She will relate her chronicles,
Because thy Lord inspires her. (99: 1-5)
This verse is explained by the Holy
Prophet (PBUH). He says, “Earth is the witness of our deeds”. It has no
eye but can see, it has no pen but witness; it has no brain but
remembers”. (21)
Another verse relates that our own
body’s parts keep on recording our deeds:
On that Day,
We shall seal up their mouth,
And their hands will speak out,
Their feet will bear witness,
To what they used to earn. (36: 65)
And,
At length when they reach their judgement,
Their hearing, their sight and their skins,
All beer witness against them
They will say to their skin,
Why bear you witness against us?
It will say,
Allah has given us speech,
He who gives speech, to everything
(41: 20-21)
Recent advancement in the field of
science can be helpful in understanding these verses of the Holy Quran.
In this connection we can benefit from different scientific theories.
K.A. Rashid writes in his book “Iqbal, Qruan and the Western World”:
“Another very interesting thing has been recently discovered and it is
the process of recording our actins in the human body. Says Edward
Russel, “There is within the brain a Ganglionic record of past
experiences. The main vehicles of experience in the human body are
limbs, the sexual organs and the organs of sight, hearing , taste, touch
and small. Each of these organs is vibrating and communicating with the
brain and with each other as well as with the outer world. ……. this
record is being maintained in the brain cells in the form of tiny hair
like fibrous tapes, which would be projected as if on a T.V. screen to
show man on the Day of Resurrection what he had been doing.” (22)
Maulana Wahiduddin Khan in his book “God
Arises” has explained the process of record keeping in the light of
Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis. He writes:
“It becomes evident that human memory is
not confined just to that part of existence which is consciously by
experienced. One may not be conscious of certain compartments of the
human memory, but they nevertheless exist. Various experiments have
proved that all our thoughts are preserved for ever in the form in which
they first existed. And even if we so desired, we could not eradicate
them from our memory. …… there is another major part of the human
personality which exists below the level of consciousness. Freud dubbed
this part the subconscious or unconscious. (23)
He further writes:
It has been proved that sound waves once
produced continues to exist for ever in the atmosphere. Although our
technology is not yet so advanced as to enable us to catch and reproduce
these sounds … it has been accepted in theory that we shall have the
physical means to listen to the sounds produced in ancient times….. (The
difficulty is that at present we can not separate individual sounds from
the complex mixture of noises produced at any given moment) ……… The
techniques of segregating natural sounds have yet to be evolved. But the
very facts that techniques already exist by which radio transmitter and
receivers separate artificial sounds is strong indication that some time
in future, we shall be in a position to hear distinctly separate,
naturally produced sounds”. Then we shall have a first hand account of
all periods of human history through the medium of the sound produced at
that time” (24)
How the inanimate things can perform the
function of record keeping is not incomprehensible for a man who lives
in the age of computer. In this respect I would like to quote again from
Bashiruddin Mahmood’s Book. He writes:
“…In these days every one knows about
the computer memory chips made of silica, each one of which is able to
store millions of information bits for ever. And each new day rises with
the new miracles of information storage. They now talk about the ability
to record all the volumes of Encyclopaedia Britannica on the head of a
paper pin.”(25)
Last but not least is the question about
the nature of the life after death. This question’s answer can be found
in a dialogue between Hazrat Abrahim and Almighty Allah. He was keen to
know the attribute of Allah Almighty as to How He would raise up the
dead and he asks of Him:
“And when Abraham, My Lord show me how
thou giveth life to the dead: He said dost thou not believe? He said:
Yes, but heart may be at ease. He said: Then take four birds, then tame
them to incline to thee, then place on every mountain a part of them,
then call them, they will come to thee flying. And know that Allah is
Mighty, wise.” (2: 260)
The life hereafter is just as material
as this place, except that it will be absolutely pure, devoid of all
pollution and evil which is creation of man. The same vibrations will
energise to reassemble and attain the same form which will carry no
physical defects. (26)
REFERENCES
-
Gilani, Manazer Ehsen. Addin-Al-Qayyam (Karachi:
Nafees Academy, 1980) pp.16-17
-
H.P Owes. The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (ed),
Paul Edwards (London and New York: Macmillan, 1967) Vol:3, pp.48-49
-
William C. Chittick. Encyclopaedia of Islamic
Spirituality, (ed.) Seyyed Hussain Nasr (Lahore: Suhail Academy)
Vol:1, pp.378-379
-
Mahmood S.Bashiruddin. Mechanics of the Doomsday and
Life After Death (New Delhi, Kitab Bhavan, 2000) pp.7-9
-
Ibid, p.50
-
Ibid, p.56
-
Ibid, p.55
-
Ibid, p.57
-
Ibid, p.56
-
Ibid, pp.69-73, 75-84
-
Ibid, 71-73
-
Ibid, 72-73
-
Ibid, 85
-
Mehmood, S.Bashiruddin. Doomsday and Life After
Death (Delhi,
Millat Book Centre) p.140
-
Mehmood, S.B. Mechanics of the Doomsday.
pp.24-25
-
Maulana Shahabuddin Nadvi’s article appeared in the
Monthly Al-Haq”, Akora Khattak, Nowshera and quoted by Professor Abdul
Majid in his article ‘cloning technology’ published in the
college magazine of Govt. Post-Graduate College, Mansehra.
-
Rashid K.A. (Lt.
Col), Iqbal, Quran and the Western World (Lahore: Progressive
Books, 1978) p.50
-
It is added by me.
-
Rashid K.A, op.cit, p.50
-
Ibid, p.82
-
Rashid
-
Rashid K.A., op.cit, pp.61-62
-
Wahiduddin Khan, Maulana: God Arises ………evidence of
God in Nature and in science (New Delhi, Goodword Books, 1999)
pp.110-111
-
Ibid, p.113
-
Mehmood, Bashiruddin: Doomsday & Life After Death
(Delhi, Millat Book Centre) pp.177
-
Rashid, K.A, op.cit, pp.73-74
Subject Specialist in Economics, Govt Higher Secondary School,
Sherpur, Mansehra.
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